Hi everyone!

The task of finding the minimum linear recurrence for the given starting sequence is typically solved with the Berlekamp-Massey algorithm. In this article I would like to highlight another possible approach, with the use of the extended Euclidean algorithm.

Great thanks to nor for the proofreading and all the useful comments to make the article more accessible and rigorous.

Tl'dr.

The procedure below is essentially a formalization of the extended Euclidean algorithm done on $$$F(x)$$$ and $$$x^{m+1}$$$.

If you need to find the minimum linear recurrence for a given sequence $$$F_0, F_1, \dots, F_m$$$, do the following:

Let $$$F(x) = F_m + F_{m-1} x + \dots + F_0 x^m$$$ be the generating function of the reversed $$$F$$$.

Compute the sequence of remainders $$$r_{-2}, r_{-1}, r_0, \dots, r_k$$$ such that $$$r_{-2} = F(x)$$$, $$$r_{-1}=x^{m+1}$$$ and

Let $$$a_k(x)$$$ be a polynomial such that $$$r_k = r_{k-2} - a_k r_{k-1}$$$.

Compute the auxiliary sequence $$$q_{-2}, q_{-1}, q_0, \dots, q_k$$$ such that $$$q_{-2} = 1$$$, $$$q_{-1} = 0$$$ and

Pick $$$k$$$ to be the first index such that $$$\deg r_k < \deg q_k$$$. Let $$$q_k(x) = a_0 x^d - \sum\limits_{k=1}^d a_k x^{d-k}$$$, then it also holds that

for any $$$n \geq d$$$ and $$$d$$$ is the minimum possible. Thus, $$$q_k(x)$$$ divided by $$$a_0$$$ is the characteristic polynomial of the minimum linear for $$$F$$$.

More generally, one can say for such $$$k$$$ that

Linear recurrence interpolation

In the previous article on linear recurrences we derived that the generating function of the linear recurrence always looks like

where $$$P(x)$$$ and $$$Q(x)$$$ are polynomials and $$$\deg P < \deg Q$$$. In this representation, $$$Q(x) = 1 - \sum\limits_{k=1}^d a_k x^k$$$ corresponds to

Typical competitive programming task of recovering linear recurrence is formulated as follows:

In formal power series terms it means that we're given $$$F(x) = F_0 + F_1 x + \dots + F_{m}x^{m}$$$ and we need to find $$$\frac{P(x)}{Q(x)}$$$ such that

$$$\deg P < d$$$, $$$\deg Q \leq d$$$ and $$$d$$$ is the minimum possible. Note that it is not required for $$$a_d$$$ to be non-zero.

In this terms, as we will see later, what the problem asks us to find is essentially one of the Padé approximants of $$$F(x)$$$.

Padé approximants

Given a formal power series $$$f(x) = \sum\limits_{k=0}^\infty f_k x^k$$$, its Padé approximant of order $$$[p/q]$$$ is a pair of polynomials $$$(P, Q)$$$ such that the degree of $$$P$$$ is at most $$$p$$$, the degree of $$$Q$$$ is at most $$$q$$$, the polynomial $$$Q$$$ is non-zero and

where $$$m=p+q$$$. Padé approximant is denoted $$$[p/q]_{f}$$$.

Padé approximant is unique in the following sense. Let $$$(P_0, Q_0)$$$ and $$$(P_1, Q_1)$$$ both satisfy the definition of $$$[p/q]_f$$$, then

This, in turn, implies

meaning that $$$P_0(x)Q_1(x)-P_1(x)Q_0(x)$$$ is divisible by $$$x^{m+1}$$$. But the degree of the difference is at most $$$x^m$$$, thus

even disregarding the $$$\bmod x^{m+1}$$$ part. Note that if $$$(P_0, Q_0)$$$ is an approximant and $$$(P_1, Q_1)$$$ satisfies the identity above, it does not imply that $$$(P_1, Q_1)$$$ is also an approximant, meaning that we generally can't just require $$$\gcd(P, Q)=1$$$ normalization.

However, we may search for the representative with minimum possible degree of $$$Q$$$, as the difference $$$\deg Q - \deg P$$$ is the same for all representations, assuming $$$\deg 0 = -\infty$$$.

Note: In scholarly articles, this is often bypassed by requiring $$$\gcd(P, Q)=1$$$ and using the normalization $$$Q(0)=1$$$, thus requiring $$$\frac{P(x)}{Q(x)}$$$ to be a meaningful rational function that coincides with $$$f(x)$$$ in terms up to $$$x^m$$$.

Online Judge — Rational Approximation. Given $$$f(x)$$$, compute $$$p(x)$$$ and $$$q(x)$$$ of degrees at most $$$m-1$$$ and $$$n-1$$$ such that

Extended Euclidean algorithm

Let's look again on the condition

It translates into the following Bézout's identity:

where $$$K(x)$$$ is a formal power series. When $$$P(x)$$$ is divisible by $$$\gcd(F(x), x^{m+1})$$$ the solution to this equation can be found with the extended Euclidean algorithm. Turns out, the extended Euclidean algorithm can also be used to enumerate all $$$[p/q]_F$$$ with $$$p+q=m$$$.

Formalizing the algorithm

Let's formalize the extended Euclidean algorithm of $$$A(x)$$$ and $$$B(x)$$$. Starting with $$$r_{-2} = A$$$ and $$$r_{-1} = B$$$, we compute the sequence

If you're familiar with continued fractions, you could recognize, that this sequence corresponds to the representation

Same as with rational numbers, for such sequence it is possible to define the sequence of convergents

starting with

Now, one can prove the following identity:

In other words, we get three sequences $$$r_k$$$, $$$p_k$$$ and $$$q_k$$$ that define a family of solutions to the Bézout's identity.

Using $$$A(x) = F(x)$$$ and $$$B(x) = x^{m+1}$$$, we conclude that

Enumerating approximants

Let's estimate the degrees of $$$r_k$$$ and $$$q_k$$$ to understand how they relate with Padé approximants.

It follows from the recurrence that $$$\deg q_{k} - \deg q_{k-1} = \deg a_k = \deg r_{k-2} - \deg r_{k-1}$$$, therefore

and

This means that $$$\frac{(-1)^{k}r_k}{q_k}$$$ is the Padé approximants $$$[(m-q)/q]_F$$$ for all $$$q$$$ from $$$\deg q_k$$$ to $$$\deg q_k + \deg a_{k+1}-1 = \deg q_{k+1}-1$$$.

Joining it together for all $$$q_k$$$ we see that all $$$[(m-q)/q]_F$$$ for $$$q$$$ from $$$0$$$ to $$$m$$$ are covered.

Thus, if you find $$$k$$$ such that $$$\deg q_k \leq q$$$ and $$$\deg q_{k+1} > q$$$, assuming $$$p+q=m$$$, it will hold that

Finding the linear recurrence

Let $$$F(x) Q(x) \equiv P(x) \pmod{x^{m+1}}$$$ for some $$$P(x)$$$ and $$$Q(x)$$$ such that $$$\deg P(x) < \deg Q(x)$$$.

If $$$\deg P \leq m - \deg Q$$$ then $$$(P, Q)$$$ satisfies the definition of $$$[(m - \deg Q)/\deg Q]_F$$$. Otherwise, $$$[(m-\deg Q)/\deg Q]_F$$$ would provide another pair of $$$P(x)$$$ and $$$Q(x)$$$ with possibly smaller degree of $$$Q$$$ and certainly smaller degree of $$$P$$$.

To avoid dealing with special cases around $$$Q(0)=0$$$, and also around possible necessity to find needed $$$d$$$, while iterating over approximants, you may deem useful to reverse the sequence, for which you search for the recurrence. In this way, rather than fixing $$$Q(0)=1$$$ for the linear recurrence, you'd rather look for highest term of $$$Q(x)$$$ being equal to $$$1$$$.

The approaches are equivalent in a sense that when $$$Q(x) = 1-b_1 x - \dots - b_q x^q$$$ defines the linear recurrence

the reversed polynomial $$$x^d Q(x^{-1}) = x^d - b_1 x^{d-1} - \dots - b_d$$$ defines the recurrence

Thus to find the first kind recurrence for $$$F_0,F_1,\dots,F_m$$$, we could find the second kind recurrence for $$$F_m, F_{m-1}, \dots, F_0$$$ instead.

In this notion, the minimum recurrence is defined by the first $$$k$$$ such that $$$\deg r_k < \deg q_k$$$ and has a characteristic polynomial $$$q_k$$$.

I have implemented the $$$O(n^2)$$$ algorithm as a part of my polynomial algorithms library:

// Returns the characteristic polynomial
// of the minimum linear recurrence for
// the first d+1 elements of the sequence
poly min_rec(int d = deg()) const {
    // R1 = reversed (Q(x) mod x^{d+1}), R2 = x^{d+1}
    auto R1 = mod_xk(d + 1).reverse(d + 1), R2 = xk(d + 1);
    auto Q1 = poly(T(1)), Q2 = poly(T(0));
    while(!R2.is_zero()) {
        auto [a, nR] = R1.divmod(R2); // R1 = a*R2 + nR, deg nR < deg R2
        tie(R1, R2) = make_tuple(R2, nR);
        tie(Q1, Q2) = make_tuple(Q2, Q1 + a * Q2);
        if(R2.deg() < Q2.deg()) {
            return Q2 / Q2.lead(); // guarantee that the highest coefficient is 1
        }
    }
    assert(0);
}

You can see this Library Judge submission for further details.

Also here is a library-free version, if you prefer it.

Half-GCD algorithm

The notion above provides the basis to construct the $$$O(n \log^2 n)$$$ divide and conquer algorithm of computing $$$\gcd(P, Q)$$$ in polynomials and finding the minimum linear recurrence. I have a truly marvelous demonstration of this proposition that this margin is, unfortunately, too narrow to contain. I hope, I will be able to formalize the process for good and write an article about it sometime...

As a teaser, here's an example of the problem, that (probably) requires Half-GCD:

Library Checker — Inv of Polynomials. You're given $$$f(x)$$$ and $$$h(x)$$$. Compute $$$f^{-1}(x)$$$ modulo $$$h(x)$$$.

Let $$$\frac{f(x)}{h(x)} = [a_0; a_1, \dots, a_k]$$$ and $$$\frac{p_{k-1}}{q_{k-1}} = [a_0; a_1, \dots, a_{k-1}]$$$, then $$$f q_{k-1} - h p_{k-1} = (-1)^{k-2} r_k = (-1)^{k-2} \gcd(f, p)$$$.

Therefore, if $$$r_{k} = \gcd(f, h)$$$ is non-constant, the inverse doesn't exist. Otherwise, the inverse is $$$(-1)^{k-2} q_{k-1}(x)$$$.

In the problem, $$$n \leq 5 \cdot 10^4$$$, therefore you need to do something better than $$$O(n^2)$$$ Euclidean algorithm.