Years ago, when I was in college and decently good at competitive programming, I applied for a Google internship and was confident of decimating the interviews — given how well I knew the basic as well as advanced algorithms and data structures — and my cracking coding speed which produced bug free code (mostly). I remember the interviewer asking me a question about substring matching, which turned out to be a piece of cake with a custom string hashing function and a hashmap. I was done within half an hour and went to sleep imagining if Google internship would be as fun as they say — team outings, free food, schwag etc.

A few days later, I got a rejection email. And then I went and talked to my college seniors about what had really happened. I had totally misunderstood the objective of the interview. I had displayed skills that are relevant to ACM ICPC and CF online judges, but not to human beings. I had displayed only a subset of skills that are required to be a good software engineer (debatable, but at least that's how the interview process goes).

I've interviewed hundreds of candidates at my time at Google — many of them rated highly on various coding platforms — but lacking the basic style of a conversation that could convince me to work with them. It's disappointing to see the lack of some basic guidance, given how much these folks can achieve.

For the same reasons, I've started with an initiative which this community may find useful. It's a #WeeklyCodingInterview series, where I post a typical, but unique, interview question, along with follow ups, that folks can try for a week. At the end of the week, on my Youtube channel I provide the fundamental approaches to not only the problem, but also the whole topic, along with interviewer insights such as — how to approach, what are the common mistakes, how to communicate, what is the hiring bar at Google, etc.

Hope the community would find it useful.

Hello again,

Google's Kick Start 2020 season is here! Kick Start hosts online rounds throughout the year, giving participants the opportunity to test and grow their coding abilities while getting a sample of the programming skills needed for a technical career at Google. Top candidates might be invited for interviews.

We have some exciting updates for 2020:

• We’re removing Hidden Verdict Test Sets. All submissions will receive instant feedback.
• You'll see an easiest fourth problem added to each round.
• We have a new scoreboard feature of filtering by location and people you choose to follow!

I invite you to solve some fun and interesting problems on Apr 18 2020, 23:00 UTC (i.e. within next hour or so).

Dashboard can be accessed here during the contest. Problem analyses will be published after the contest.

Hello again,

Google's Kick Start 2020 season is here! Kick Start hosts online rounds throughout the year, giving participants the opportunity to test and grow their coding abilities while getting a sample of the programming skills needed for a technical career at Google. Top candidates might be invited for interviews.

We have some exciting updates for 2020:

• We’re removing Hidden Verdict Test Sets. All submissions will receive instant feedback.
• You'll see a fourth problem added to each round.

I invite you to solve some fun and interesting problems on Mar 22 2020, 04:00 UTC.

Dashboard can be accessed here during the contest. Problem analyses will be published after the contest.

Google Kick Start hosts online rounds throughout the year, giving participants the opportunity to test and grow their coding abilities while getting a sample of the programming skills needed for a technical career at Google. Top candidates might be invited for interviews.

I invite you to solve some fun and interesting problems on Sept 29 2019, 18:00 UTC.

Dashboard can be accessed here during the contest. Problem analyses will be published soon after the contest.

Google Kick Start hosts online rounds throughout the year, giving participants the opportunity to test and grow their coding abilities while getting a sample of the programming skills needed for a technical career at Google. Top candidates might be invited for interviews.

I invite you to solve some fun and interesting problems on Apr 20 2019, 23:00 UTC.

Dashboard can be accessed here during the contest. Problem analysis will be published soon after the contest.

Throughout the year, Google Code Jam hosts online Kickstart rounds to give participants the opportunity to develop their coding skills, get acquainted with Code Jam’s competition arena, and get a glimpse into the programming skills needed for a technical career at Google.

Each Kickstart round gives participants 3 hours to solve challenging, algorithmic problems developed by Google engineers. Participating is a fun way to grow your coding skills—and potentially explore opportunities at Google.

Inviting you to solve some fun and interesting problems on Sunday, Sept 30, 2018 19:00 UTC.

Dashboard can be accessed here during the contest. Problem analysis will be published soon after the contest.

Throughout the year, Google Code Jam hosts online Kickstart rounds to give participants the opportunity to develop their coding skills, get acquainted with Code Jam’s competition arena, and get a glimpse into the programming skills needed for a technical career at Google.

Each Kickstart round gives participants 3 hours to solve challenging, algorithmic problems developed by Google engineers. Participating is a fun way to grow your coding skills—and potentially explore opportunities at Google.

Inviting you to solve some fun and interesting problems on Sunday, July 29, 2018 05:00 UTC.

Dashboard can be accessed here during the contest. Problem analysis will be published soon after the contest.

Throughout the year, Google Code Jam hosts online Kickstart rounds to give participants the opportunity to develop their coding skills, get acquainted with Code Jam’s competition arena, and get a glimpse into the programming skills needed for a technical career at Google.

Each Kickstart round gives participants 3 hours to solve challenging, algorithmic problems developed by Google engineers. Participating is a fun way to grow your coding skills—and potentially explore opportunities at Google.

Inviting you to solve some fun and interesting problems on Sunday, May 27, 2018 05:00 UTC.

Dashboard can be accessed here during the contest. Problem analysis will be published soon after the contest.

Throughout the year, Google Code Jam hosts online Kickstart rounds to give participants the opportunity to develop their coding skills, get acquainted with Code Jam’s competition arena, and get a glimpse into the programming skills needed for a technical career at Google.

Each Kickstart round gives participants 3 hours to solve challenging, algorithmic problems developed by Google engineers. Participating is a fun way to grow your coding skills—and potentially explore opportunities at Google.

Inviting you to solve some fun and interesting problems on Saturday, April 21, 2018 23:00 UTC.

Dashboard can be accessed here during the contest. Problem analysis will be published soon after the contest.

Throughout the year, Code Jam hosts online Kickstart rounds to give students the opportunity to develop their coding skills, get acquainted with Code Jam’s competition arena, and get a glimpse into the programming skills needed for a technical career at Google.

Inviting you to solve some fun and interesting problems with Professor Shekhu and Akki this Sunday(hopefully in your timezone as well!) Oct 22 05:00 UTC – 08:00 UTC.

You'll find the link to contest dashboard at https://code.google.com/codejam/kickstart/ on the day of the contest. Also, we'll try to publish analysis as early as possible.

Hi everyone,

I'm excited to invite you to participate in 101 Hack 47. The contest starts at 1500 UTC, March 21. Note the unusual timing!

All problems have been prepared by me. You might have seen some problems and contests set by me on various platforms. This is my third round on HackerRank, after 101 Hack 26 and 101 Hack 40. Also, here is an old collection of my problems.

There will be five tasks and two hours for you to solve them. Contest will be rated and top-10 contestants on the leaderboard will receive amazing HackerRank T-shirts!

I'd like to thank kevinsogo for testing the problems and his contribution towards fixing problem statements and editorials. It's always a pleasant experience to work with him.

I have tried to create a balanced and interesting problem set. I suggest you read all problems, since there are subtasks and partial scoring. Problems are very much on the easier side compared to previous contests and I bet a lot of full scores(like a lot, seriously!).

Editorials(written by me) will be published right after the contest.

Update 1: Scoring will be 15 — 30 — 45 — 65 — 80. Update 2: Contest has ended. Congratulations to top 10 for getting full scores. Top 10 are:

1. I_love_Tanya_Romanova
2. dreamoon_love_AA
3. arsijo
4. KrK
5. kraskevich
6. uwi
7. LHiC
8. MadNick
9. HellKitsune
10. black_horse2014

Update 3: Editorials are up.

Hi everyone,

I'm excited to invite you to participate in Codechef October Cook-Off. The contest starts at Sunday, 23 October 2016, 16:00:00 UTC. In order to participate, you only need to have a CodeChef account. If you don't have one, you can register here.

All problems have been prepared by me. You might have seen some problems and contests set by me on various platforms. This is my second round on Codechef, after Cook-Off 50. Also, here is an old collection of my problems.

There will be five tasks and two and half hours for you to solve them. Contest will be rated and the top 10 performers in Global and Indian category will get CodeChef laddus; with them, you can claim CodeChef goodies. You can find out more here. (If you didn't get your previous goodies, you can contact [email protected].)

I'd like to thank Errichto for testing the problems, Antoniuk for Russian translations, Team VNOI for Vietnamese translations, huzecong for Mandarin translations. I specially want to thank PraveenDhinwa for his invaluable contributions in preparing the contest and being the contest admin and language verifier for problem statements.

I have tried to create a balanced and interesting problem set. I suggest you read all problems. I am expecting a lot of full scores. :)

Editorials(written by me) will be published right after the contest.
UPD 1: Editorials can be found at https://discuss.codechef.com/tags/cook75/
UPD 2: Applauds to top 6 who solved all 5 problems
1. anta
2. natsugiri
3. LHiC
4. biGinNer
5. uwi
6. chemthan

Hope you had fun. I'd love to hear your feedback on the quality of the problemset. :)

Hi everyone,

I'm excited to invite you to participate in 101 Hack 40. The contest starts at 1630 UTC, August 23.

All problems have been prepared by me. You might have seen some problems and contests set by me on various platforms. This is my second round on HackerRank, after 101 Hack 26. Also, here is an old collection of my problems.

There will be five tasks and two hours for you to solve them. Contest will be rated and top-10 contestants on the leaderboard will receive amazing HackerRank T-shirts!

I'd like to thank wanbo for testing the problems and his contribution. It's always a pleasant experience to work with him. Also, I'm thankful to my friends karanaggarwal and Baba for invaluable discussions on few of the problems.

I have tried to create a balanced and interesting problem set. I suggest you read all problems, since there are subtasks and partial scoring. I think problems are a little on the easier side compared to previous contests.

Editorials(written by me) will be published right after the contest.

PS: Announcement format has been shamelessly copied from previous entries by muratt and malcolm. :)

UPD 1: Bump. 12 hours to go!
UPD 2: Scoring will be 20-30-50-80-100.
UPD 3: Contest has ended. Congratulations to top 2 for getting full scores. Top 10 are:

1. tourist
2. uwi
3. kcm1700
4. Vercingetorix
5. Nerevar
6. I_love_Tanya_Romanova
7. Xellos
8. FatalEagle
9. TeaPot
10. yosupo

When you load the page for organisation rating, like this one: http://codeforces.net/ratings/organization/227/ and organisation has more than 200 members, you need to go to page 2. However, the page 2 button redirects to http://codeforces.net/ratings/page/2 instead of http://codeforces.net/ratings/organization/227/page/2

I hope someone from Codeforces team has a look at this.

Recently someone asked me a question on Quora about how groups can help in competitive programming and I was reminded of I_love_Hoang_Yen's modelling of competitive programming as an obstacle jumping game and I went ahead to write this answer. I'd also like to share the text here.

There is a great post by I_love_Hoang_Yen where he tries to model competitive programming as an obstacle jumping game. I'd like to use same analogy here to help you. I have used some excerpts from his post, which I've italicized.

The 'science' of problem solving
For each problem, in order to solve it, you must jump over a gap or an obstacle. It can be either a difficult implementation, or some hard-to-see observation, difficult algorithm, etc.

For me, some problems are very easy (e.g. Codeforces div 2 A, B..), because those gaps seem so small to me, and passing through them feel just like casual walking.

Some problems are very hard. The gap is just too huge, or there are many many gaps, and you can get stuck in the middle because you're too tired after maybe first gap.

Or maybe there is some trick/concept that you don't know yet! Here you are, applying brute force or greedy technique to a DP problem; of course, you won't succeed.

But now comes your experienced friend, who has been doing competitive programming for a few months, knows how to do complexity analysis, so she knows brute force won't succeed, with some more convincing she proves to you why greedy is wrong and this is where working in groups is helpful.
Now, you'll easily cross the obstacle with some guidance.

If you have read Thanh Trung Nguyen's post you'll know what to do to improve yourself individually. You just need to keep learning new tricks and concepts, at the same time you need to make sure you aren't making same mistakes again. Occasionally, when are stuck, you can ask your friends for help.

Where to find these friends
You are looking for people who are doing competitive programming and a good community where people help each other to make the game more interesting; what can be a bigger community than Codeforces! If you are facing some difficulties you can always put up a blog post asking for help.
However, as I've noticed, some people might find online collaboration a little ineffective when compared with physical presence. Some abstractions might be difficult to understand when they are just written down, instead of someone explaining to you in front of you on a board or paper. If you are school or college student, best way is to look around you, you'll find plenty of people doing these contests and willing to discuss and share their knowledge with you. If there aren't any such people, you can form a programming club in your institution and inspire other people too to join you.

Good luck!

Foot note: All gifs made using Vector — Android Apps on Google Play

100889A - A Beautiful Array

Given an array of integers, find a permutation of the array to maximize the sum .

If we observe the formula closely we see that we have to calculate . If the array is of odd length, we can simply skip the middle element. This can be maximized by putting the large numbers in the right half, and the small numbers in the left half. One good way to do this is to simply sort the array in ascending order.

Complexity: .
Code: http://ideone.com/nJddvt

100889B - Backward and Forward

Given an array A, make it palindromic using minimum merging operations. In one merging operation two adjacent elements can be replaced by their sum.

To make an array a palindromic we can simply apply merging operations n - 1 times where n is the size of array. In that case,size of array will be reduced to 1. But, in this problem we are asked to do it in minimum number of operations.

Let’s denote by f(i, j) as minimum merging operations to make a given array a mirror from index i to index j. If , i = j answer is 0.
If A_i =  = A_j, then there is no need to do any merging operations at index i or index j . Our answer in this case will be f(i + 1, j - 1).
But if arr[i] ≠ arr[j], then we need to do merging operations. If arr[i] > arr[j], then we should do merging operation at index j. We merge index j - 1 and j, and update A_j - 1 = A_j - 1 + A_j. Our answer in this case will be 1 + f(i, j - 1).
For the case when A_i < A_j, update A_i + 1 = A_i + A_i + 1. Our answer in this case will be 1 + f(i + 1, j).

Our answer will be f(0, n - 1), where n is size of array A. This problem can also be solved iteratively using 2 pointers(first pointer pointing to start of the array and second pointer pointing to last element of the array) method and keeping count of total merging operations done till now.

Complexity: O(N).
Code: http://ideone.com/lIHYJF

100889C - Chunin Exam

You are required to reach (N, M) from (1, 1), where in matrix P cells are blocked and you are allowed two type of queries:
- Look at adjacent squares. - Go to adjacent squares.

You can use constant memory and at-most O(12 * P) queries.

How would you come out of a maze full of darkness(i.e. you can just check adjacent cells) and with you having memory just enough to remember the last cell you came from? The idea is very intuitive: just walk along the walls(assume blocked cells as a wall)! Its guaranteed that path exists, so in O(P + N + M) queries worst case, we should safely reach our destination.

So, we put our left/right hand on wall and start walking in that direction. For each cell that we are visiting, we maintain the current direction in which wall is. Based on that, we try to extend the wall in possible directions by looking at adjacent blocked cells.

The worst case where you might perform O(12 * P) queries is when there is a pattern like this:

| | | | |
| | |0| |
| |0| | |
| | |0| |
| |0| | |

Here 0 denotes a blocked cell.

Code: http://ideone.com/Fintxx

100889D - Dicy Numbers

Author : vmrajas
Tester : Toshad
Explanation :
If n is represented in its canonical prime factorization as follows :
n = p₁^k₁ * p₂^k₂...p_j^k_j
The number of numbers having their number of positive divisors equal to n with their highest prime factor  ≤  m'th prime number is given by :

ans =  ^{m + k₁ - 1}C_m *  ^{m + k₂ - 1}C_m... *  ^{m + k_j - 1}C_m

Explanation of Formula : The number of divisors of a number x :

x = p₁^α₁ * p₂^α₂...p_i^α_i
is given by :
y = (α₁ + 1) * (α₂ + 1) * ... * (α_i + 1)
where y denotes number of divisors of number x. We need to find number of x such that their corresponding y = n.
The problem can be seen as for every k_z where z goes from 1 to j , we need to distribute k_z balls into i boxes. This reduces the problem to the formula stated above.

Computation of ans : Given the formula stated above, we can compute it as follows :
Prime factors of all number from 1 to 2 * 10⁶ can be computed efficienlty using sieve. Now, if we know the prime factors of a given number n , the answer can be computed in O(number of prime factors of n). As this number is very low (~15) , 10⁵ queries can be easily handled.

Code : http://ideone.com/w202fV

100889E - Everyone wants Khaleesi

You are given a Direct Acyclic Graph(DAG) with no multi-edges and self-loops. Two players play a game in which Player 1 starts at node 1 and has to reach node N by taking one existing directed edge in the graph in one move. Player 2, in one move can remove any existing edge of the graph. Game ends when player 1 has reached node N or he can't make a move. Report who wins if both play optimally.

This is a troll problem! Initially it might look really complex, but the very basic idea is that if player 1 is at distance 1 from his destination and its player 2's move, player 2 can just remove the edge that player 1 could use to reach node N in next move. The only way player 2 loses if when nodes 1 and N are directly connected, in which case player 1 will win in first move.

Complexity: O(1)
Code: http://ideone.com/oiXQTR

100889F - Flipping Rectangles

The problem asks for the maximum area of destination rectangle that can be covered by the source rectangle by flipping it atmost k times.

Let us formalize a good notation for the problem, so that it becomes easier to solve it.
Let us translate the two rectangles in such a way that the left bottom corner of the source rectangle becomes the origin. As translation does not affect the dimensions of the rectangles, the answer won't be affected because of this operation. Let a denote the side length of the source rectangle along X-Axis and b denote the side length of the source rectangle along Y-Axis. Let (c,d) denote the left bottom corner of the destination rectangle in new coordinate frame. Let e,f be its side lengths along X-Axis and Y-Axis respectively.Therefore the corners of the destination rectangle can be given by (c,d),(c + e,d),(c,d + f),(c + e,d + f).

Let Rect(i,j) denote the rectangle of length a along X-Axis and length b along Y-Axis such that its left bottom corner is at point (i * a,j * b). Therefore, the original position of the source rectangle can be referred to as Rect(0,0). Now, the given operation of flipping can be represented as follows

• Flipping it right Rect(i,j) goes to Rect(i + 1,j)
• Flipping it left Rect(i,j) goes to Rect(i - 1,j)
• Flipping it above Rect(i,j) goes to Rect(i,j + 1)
• Flipping it below Rect(i,j) goes to Rect(i,j - 1)

Now, the minimum number of flips required to take source rectangle Rect(0,0) to Rect(i,j) can be found out as |i|+|j|. Let Rect(x,y) denote the rectangle whose intersection area with the destination rectangle is non-zero and |x|+|y| is as minimum as possible.

Key Observation : Atleast one of the rectangles Rect(x,y), Rect(x + 1,y), Rect(x,y + 1), Rect(x + 1,y + 1), Rect(x - 1,y), Rect(x - 1,y - 1), Rect(x,y - 1), Rect(x + 1,y - 1), Rect(x - 1,y + 1) covers the maximum intersection area with the destination rectangle.

Therefore, if we are able to find such x, y, we can find the answer by finding the maximum intersection area of destination rectangle with the above 9 rectangles. To consider the extra constraint of maximum k flips, we also need to check if |i|+|j|  ≤  k while considering Rect(i,j) for maximum intersection area.

How do we find the required x and y?

These can be found out by the observation that Rect(x,y) will contain at least one of the corners of destination rectangle or the points (c,0), (c + e,0), (0,d), (0,d + f). Rect(x,y) will not contain the corners of destination rectangle in cases when the endpoints of the destination rectangle are on the opposite sides of the coordinate axes.

For a given point the required i, j such that Rect(i,j) contains the point can be computed easily using integer division of the coordinates of point by the sides of the source rectangles.

For more details http://ideone.com/u97AYD

100889G - Gift Pack

Since XOR and AND are bit-wise operators, we can process x, y and z bit by bit separately. Lets try to construct x, y and z which gives optimal answer from MSB to LSB. Since they are bounded by 10¹⁸ we need to consider less than 63 bits.

Let's say x has i, y has j and z has k at a bit position , the contribution of this position in answer is

((i^j) + (j&k) + (k^i)) * 2^pos

So now if there was no constraints on values of x, y and z we would move from MSB to LSB and simply chose the combination of bits of x, y and z at every bit-position that resulted in maximum contribution to the answer. But how to deal with constraints on them?

A thing to note is:
Let's say we are constructing a number p bit by bit from MSB to LSB. If at any position i we make a choice such that p becomes greater than a number q at that bit position, no matter what we choose for further bit position of p, it can never become  ≤ q.
Same thing can be said for p  ≥  q.

So while constructing x, y and z from MSB to LSB, the choice of values we have, for each of them, at every bit position depends on the previous choices of values L, R, A and B.
We solve the problem using dynamic programming.

Define a state as . Following code explains the transition between states.

//f1 denotes if x has become > L
//f2, g1, g2 denotes if x, y, z have become < R, < A, < B respectively
//pos is the bit position currently being looked at
lld solve(int pos, bool f1, bool f2, bool g1, bool g2)
{
	if(pos<0) return 0; //base case
	lld ret = dp[pos][f1][f2][g1][g2];
	if(ret!=-1) return ret;
	ret = 0;
	int d1 = 0, d2 = 1; //min, max values the bit can take at this postion for x
	if(bit(pos, L) == 1 && !f1) d1 = 1; //adjust min value at pos for x
	if(bit(pos, R) == 0 && !f2) d2 = 0; //adjust max value at pos for x
	int D1 = 0, D2 = 1; //min, max values the bit can take at this postion for y
	if(bit(pos, A) == 0 && !g1) D2 = 0; //adjust max value at pos for y
	int DD1 = 0, DD2 = 1; //min, max values the bir can take at this postion for z
	if(bit(pos, B) == 0 && !g2) DD2 = 0; //adjust max value at pos for z

	//try all possible combinations for this postion for x, y, z
	for(int i=d1;i<=d2;i++)
		for(int j=D1;j<=D2;j++)
			for(int k = DD1;k<=DD2;k++)
			{
				//calculate the contribution this bit cam make in final answer
				lld tmp = (1LL*(i^j) + 1LL*(j&k) + 1LL*(k^i))<<pos;
				
				bool ff1 = f1, ff2 = f2;
				bool gg1 = g1, gg2 = g2;
				//adjust new flags (f1, f2, g1, g2) depending on current combinations
				if(i > bit(pos, L)) ff1 = 1;
				if(i < bit(pos, R)) ff2 = 1;
				if(j < bit(pos, A)) gg1 = 1;
				if(k < bit(pos, B)) gg2 = 1;
				//update the ans depending on result for this combination
				ret = max(ret, tmp + solve(pos-1, ff1, ff2, gg1, gg2));
			}

	//found the result for this state yay :D
	return (dp[pos][f1][f2][g1][g2] = ret);
}

100889H - Hitting Points

You are given N points of a polygon p_i in counter clockwise order. In each query, for a different l, k, we put polygon with origin at point p_l and edge p_l to p_{(l + 1)%N} on x-axis; and we put an infinite rod on line x = k. When this rod falls in counter-clockwise direction, we are supposed to output the indices of vertices where this rod touches first time.

Most interesting observations in g### eometry come via visualisation and drawing. Consider the following image.

I have projected edges V_i to V_i + 1(for i ≥ 1) on new x-axis(defined by base). If the vertical rod lies in region (P₀, P₁), it'll touch vertex V₁, if its in region (P₁, P₂), it'll touch vertex V₂ and so on. So, we notice that all edges in counter-clockwise direction are creating a continuous region such that if k lies in that region, the rod will touch the first point of that edge. If you think about the reason, its quite intuitive. We just have to find the region in which k lies, which can be done via binary search on the edges of polygon in counter-clockwise direction. We need to consider those edges whose intersection with new x-axis lies to right side of polygon(i.e. +ve x-axis); so basically are searching over right hull of convex polygon.

For finding the distance on new x-axis we take intersection with the base line(i.e new x-axis) and see distance from base points. Also, we can easily take care of rod touching an whole edge, which happens when k is at the boundary of one of the regions of an edge.

Complexity: .
Code: http://ideone.com/w6DGKA

100889I - iChandu

Given a string S of length n consisting of only lower case letters, you have to replace a character at exactly 1 position with the character '$' such that the number of distinct palindromes in the final string is maximum.

What we need to do is for every position i count the number of:

• new palindromes that would be created, if the substitution was made at index i.
• old palindromes that would be destroyed, if the substitution was made at index i.

For the first case, since the new character is distinct from all the earlier ones it can only create odd length palindromes with '$' at the middle.

Hence the number of palindromes created when a substitution is made at index i, will be equal to the number of odd length palindromes that already exist with index i as the center. This can be found for every i in O(n) using Manacher's algorithm.

For the second case, what we need to note is that the maximum number of distinct palindromes in a string of length n is n, because at every index i, only 1 distinct palindrome can be ending there.

Now consider one of the distinct palindromes present in string S, let it be P.

P might occur in S more than once. After the substitution, P will no longer exist if and only if the index of the substitution is present in each and every occurrence of P. For index i to be present in each occurrence of P, i must be present in the overlap of every occurrence of P. The overlap of every occurrence of P is equal to the overlap of the first and last occurrence of P. So if the substitution is made in the overlap of the first and last occurrence of P, P will be 'destroyed'.

Hence we need to find all distinct palindromes and for each one we need to find the first and last occurrence of it. This can be done with a palindromic tree.

Construct a palindromic tree for S, this will provide the first occurrence of every distinct palindrome. Similarly construct a palindromic tree reverse of S, this will provide the last occurrence of every distinct palindrome. Now for every distinct palindrome preform a range update of +1 for the range of overlap of the first and last occurrence of that palindrome, because a substitution in that range will destroy that palindrome.

Now finally check which index i has maximum of number of palindromes created  -  number of palindrome destroyed.

Final complexity: O(n)

Code: http://ideone.com/bxH8O0

100889J - Jittery Roads

Given a weighted undirected tree, handle 2 types of queries:

• Update weight of edge between two nodes u, v.
• For a subset of nodes(special nodes), find for every special node the distance to the special node farthest from it.

First let’s look at a simpler version of the problem. Consider there were no updates and all nodes of the tree were special nodes. Let the tree be rooted at node 1. For every node u, the farthest node from it will either be in its subtree or not. With one DFS, we can compute for every node u, what is the maximum distance to any node in its subtree.

-> in_subtree[u] = max(in_subtree[v] + E(u,v)) for all ‘v’, where ‘v’ is a child of ‘u’ and E(u,v) is the weight of the edge between ‘u’ & ‘v’.

With another DFS, we can compute for every node u, what is the maximum distance to any node NOT in its subtree.

-> out_of_subtree[u] = max(in_subtree[v] + E(u,p) + E(v,p)) for all ‘v’, where ‘v’ is sibling of ‘u’ and ‘p’ is the parent of both.
-> out_of_subtree[u] = max(out_of_subtree[u], out_of_subtree[p] + E(u,p)), where ‘p’ is the parent of ‘u’.

Finally for every node u, answer will be the maximum of in_subtree[u] and out_of_subtree[u].

Coming to a slightly more advanced form of the problem, consider there are no updates but now special nodes can be any subset of nodes. When we have a query with K special nodes, we can construct an auxiliary tree of those K nodes and solve for that new tree with the DP used above.

To construct an auxiliary tree, we need all K special nodes and LCAs of every pair of special nodes. But LCAs of every pair of special nodes is equal to LCAs of every adjacent pair of special nodes when the special nodes are sorted in preorder of the tree(arrival time of nodes in DFS). Now for the weights of the edges in the auxiliary tree, weight of edge between node u and v will be equal to distance between nodes u and v in the original tree. This can be handled if distance between every node u and root of original tree is precomputed.

Now to handle updates as well. Note that for every node, the only information that we require and that can be changed after updates is the distance to root. If edge between node u and its parent p is updated from w₁ to w₂, the only changes will be for distance to root from every node v in u's subtree, and the change will be same for all, i.e. for every node v in subtree of u:
dist_to_root[v] = dist_to_root[v] - w1 + w2

Now if we maintain an array of dist_to_root[] sorted in preorder of nodes, any subtree is a continuous range. Thus the updates of edges can be handled with an array that can handle:

• Range Update(add w₂ - w₁ to range of subtree of u)
• Point query(query for dist_to_root[u])

This can be handled using a Segment Tree or Fenwick Tree.

Complexity:

• Update
• Query

Solution: http://ideone.com/UyhQDX

There are others approaches as well, such as:

• Updates can be handled using HLD (Longer code and slower).
• Centroid Decomposition; Solution: http://ideone.com/2YnsZc
• Breaking apart the queries into those with and those with . Apply O(K²) brute force for first case and O(N) DFS on entire tree for latter case.

100889K - Kill Bridges

Setter : Baba
Tester : itisalways42 , karanaggarwal
Problem Statement :
Given a connected undirected unweighted graph with N nodes and M edges, you can add at most K edges in the graph, tell the maximum number of bridges that can be removed from the graph. There will be Q queries, each specifying a different K .
Solution :
First of all, shrink the 2-edge biconnected components of the given graph and build it's Bridge Tree.The problem now reduces to :
Given a tree , we need to do select 2*K leaves of the tree and do their matching such that if a pair of leaves (u,v) is matched, we color the path from u to v in the tree. We want to maximize the number of colored edges after the paths joining all the K pairs has been colored. Note that in the process an edge might be colored multiple times but it would be counted only once in the final answer.
Before we solve the above problem, let us look at the following two lemmas :
Lemma-1 : In the optimal solution , the subgraph formed by the colored edges would be connected.
Proof : If it is not so, let (u,v) be an edge such that it is not colored and there exists colored subgraphs on either side of this edge in the tree. Let (x,y) be a pair of matched leaves towards the left side of the edge and let (p,q) be a pair of matched leaves towards the right side of the edge. Without loss of generality, we can match (x,p) and (y,q) such that whatever edges were colored earlier remain colored and the edge (u,v) is now also colored. Same argument can be inductively extended and we can say that in the optimal solution the subgraph formed would always be connected.
Lemma-2 : The center of the tree would always be a part of the optimal connected subgraph.
Proof : The proof of this is left as an exercise to the reader (Hint : For K=1, we would always join the end points of the diameter )

Using the above two lemma's, we can move on with the implementation of the greedy approach as follows :
1. Root the tree at its center.
2. Break the tree into chains using HLD type idea, where at any node a special child would be the one that has longest chain lying in it's subtree with one end point at that node.
3. For every leaf, define contribution of that leaf as the length of chain that ends at that leaf. The contribution can be found out as follows :

void dfs(int u,int p,int len=0)
{
    bool isLeaf=true;
    for(auto w:tree[u])
    {
        if(w==p)continue;
        isLeaf=false;
        if(far[u]==far[w])dfs(w,u,len+1); //special child
        else dfs(w,u,1); //start a new chain
    }
    if(isLeaf)cntbn.PB(len);
}

Sort the leaves in descending order of their contributions and for a query K, pick the first 2*K leaves from the sorted order and add their contribution to get the final answer.

Code: http://ideone.com/pLCPcP

100889L - Lazy Mayor

Problem Idea : vmrajas
Author : itisalways42
Tester : hulkblaster
Problem Statement:
Given an undirected weighted graph of n nodes, m edges and a non-negative integer k, you need to find out for each pair of nodes u,v, Let the shortest distance between u and v using atmost k edges be dist[u][u]. We have to compute dist[u][v] and the count of paths from u to v with atmost k edges such that the distance of such paths is equal to dist[u][v].

Difficulty:Medium

Explanation:
The problem can be solved using dynamic programming. Let dp[x][y][z] be the shortest distance between node x and node y using atmost z edges and let cnt[x][y][z] denote its count. The recurrence to compute dp[x][y][z] can be given as :

dp[x][y][z] = min(dp[x][i][z/2] + dp[i][y][z-z/2],dp[x][y][z]) where i goes from 1 to n.    

The base case :

dp[i][j][0] = 1  , if i==j    
dp[i][j][0] = 0  , otherwise	 

dp[i][j][1] = g[i][j]	 

where g[i][j] is the length of the edge between node i and j (0 if it doesn't exist.)

Using the above recurrence the 2-D matrix representing the shortest distance between any pair of nodes using at-most K edges can be computed using matrix exponentiation. Also, the cnt table can also be computed along with the exponentiation to compute the dp table.

Have a look at the code below for implementation details.

Code : http://ideone.com/9r975m

Hello,

As you might remember, CodeCraft 2016 was held online on the university's platform on 12th Feb 2016(find announcement, results). CodeCraft is an 5 hours ACM-ICPC style contest for individuals which is organised every year by IIIT Hyderabad. We don't have resources to keep our platform online for whole year, so we think GYM contest is a good option to create an archive and help people train better.

I invite you to GYM Replay of the contest to be held on 21st Feb 2016 1400 MSK in GYM. There will be 12 problems and duration 5.5 hours(as was original contest).

There are some really interesting problems in contest. In general, all participants would be able to find something that captivates their interest. For a better gradient, the level is a letter higher than last years contest. Also, you'll be able to compete with ghost participants(i.e. participants who actually participated in original contest).

Detailed editorials will be uploaded once the GYM contest is over.

Good luck and have fun!

UPD: Editorial

Hi,

We present to you our Annual Programming Contest, CodeCraft. It will be an ACM-ICPC style 5-hour contest, but for individuals.

There will be problems of varying difficulty, so, beginners and advanced programmers can savour the problems equally. (hopefully :P) Come treat yourself!

Contest starts 12th February, 2016 20:30 IST
Check in your timezone here
Register at: http://felicity.iiit.ac.in/register
Link to Contest: https://felicity.iiit.ac.in/threads/codecraft/
RSVP: Facebook event

We've also arranged a practice contest for you, which contains problems from past COCI and 1 interactive problem.
This practice contest will warm you up and hopefully help you get acquainted with the contest platform.
Time: 31st January, 2016 16:00 IST
Link to Practice Contest: https://felicity.iiit.ac.in/threads/codecraft/

Here is last year's scoreboard and also, you can see problems in GYM contest!

Good Luck!

See you on the leaderboard!

UPD: Contest has ended! Out of 12, we saw atleast one AC on 10 problems.
Top 5 on final leaderboard, with all solving 8 are:
1. nfssdq
2. mkirsche
3. geniucos
4. Sumeet.Varma
5. Ming.Shen

You can see the image here showing top 10:

We'll be releasing editorials soon after a replay on GYM soon. We would really like to see all problems solved, even if its in GYM :)
For now, we are opening the submissions on our own domjudge in a while.

As you might have noticed teams get a separate page of their own, like this one. Now, what would be really cool is to have a contest history available for the team on the same page. It would be really awesome to track the progress and recent contests of your competitor teams in ACM ICPC.

Today I experienced something I don't know is intended or not, but surely doesn't seem like good from UX point of view. If you edit a blog post and save it as a draft or do a preview and not post it again, it gets deleted. Its only visible to you in your saved drafts and not to everyone.

A certain question on Quora and some junior asking about DP on Trees is what inspired this post. Its been a long time since I wrote any tutorial, so, its a welcome break from monotonicity of events.

Pre-requisites:

• Will to read this post thoroughly. :)
• Also, you should know basic dynamic programming, the optimal substructure property and memoisation.
• Trees(basic DFS, subtree definition, children etc.)

Dynamic Programming(DP) is a technique to solve problems by breaking them down into overlapping sub-problems which follow the optimal substructure. We all know of various problems using DP like subset sum, knapsack, coin change etc. We can also use DP on trees to solve some specific problems.

We define functions for nodes of the trees, which we calculate recursively based on children of a nodes. One of the states in our DP usually is a node i, denoting that we are solving for the subtree of node i.

As we do examples, things will get clear for you.

Problem 1

==============

The first problem we solve is as follows: Given a tree T of N nodes, where each node i has C_i coins attached with it. You have to choose a subset of nodes such that no two adjacent nodes(i.e. nodes connected directly by an edge) are chosen and sum of coins attached with nodes in chosen subset is maximum.

This problem is quite similar to 1-D array problem where we are given an array A₁, A₂, ..., A_N; we can't choose adjacent elements and we have to maximise sum of chosen elements. Remember, how we define our state as denoting answer for A₁, A₂, ..., A_i. Now, we define our recurrence as (two cases: choose A_i or not, respectively).

Now, unlike array problem where in our state we are solving for first i elements, in case of trees one of our states usually denotes which subtree we are solving for. For defining subtrees we need to root the tree first. Say, if we root the tree at node 1 and define our DP as the answer for subtree of node V, then our final answer is .

Now, similar to array problem, we have to make a decision about including node V in our subset or not. If we include node V, we can't include any of its children(say v₁, v₂, ..., v_n), but we can include any grand child of V. If we don't include V, we can include any child of V.

So, we can write a recursion by defining maximum of two cases.
.

As we see in most DP problems, multiple formulations can give us optimal answer. Here, from an implementation point of view, we can define an easier solution using DP. We define two DPs, and , denoting maximum coins possible by choosing nodes from subtree of node V and if we include node V in our answer or not, respectively. Our final answer is maximum of two case i.e. .

And defining recursion is even easier in this case. (since we cannot include any of the children) and (since we can include children now, but we can also choose not include them in subset, hence max of both cases).

About implementation now. You must notice that answer for a node is dependent on answer of its children. We write a recursive definition of DFS, where we first call recursive function for all children and then calculate answer for current node.

//adjacency list
//adj[i] contains all neighbors of i
vector<int> adj[N];

//functions as defined above
int dp1[N],dp2[N];

//pV is parent of node V
void dfs(int V, int pV){

    //for storing sums of dp1 and max(dp1, dp2) for all children of V
    int sum1=0, sum2=0;

    //traverse over all children
    for(auto v: adj[V]){
    if(v == pV) continue;
    dfs(v, V);
    sum1 += dp2[v];
    sum2 += max(dp1[v], dp2[v]);
    }

    dp1[V] = C[V] + sum1;
    dp2[V] = sum2;
}

int main(){
    int n;
    cin >> n;

    for(int i=1; i<n; i++){
    cin >> u >> v;
    adj[u].push_back(v);
    adj[v].push_back(u);
    }

    dfs(1, 0);
    int ans = max(dp1[1], dp2[1]);
    cout << ans << endl;
}

Complexity is O(N).

Problem 2:

==============

Given a tree T of N nodes, calculate longest path between any two nodes(also known as diameter of tree).

First, lets root tree at node 1. Now, we need to observe that there would exist a node x such that:

• Longest path starts from node x and goes into its subtree(denoted by blue lines in the image). Lets define by f(x) this path length.
• Longest path starts in subtree of x, passes through x and ends in subtree of x(denoted by red line in image). Lets define by g(x) this path length.

If for all nodes x, we take maximum of f(x), g(x), then we can get the diameter. But first, we need to see how we can calculate maximum path length in both cases.

Now, lets say a node V has n children v₁, v₂, ..., v_n. We have defined f(i) as length of longest path that starts at node i and ends in subtree of i. We can recursively define f(V) as , because we are looking at maximum path length possible from children of V and we take the maximum one. So, optimal substructure is being followed here. Now, note that this is quite similar to DP except that now we are defining functions for nodes and defining recursion based on values of children. This is what DP on trees is.

Now, for case 2, a path can originate from subtree of node v_i, and pass through node V and end in subtree of v_j, where i ≠ j. Since, we want this path length to be maximum, we'll choose two children v_i and v_j such that f(v_i) and f(v_j) are maximum. We say that .

For implementing this, we note that for calculating f(V), we need f to be calculated for all children of V. So, we do a DFS and we calculate these values on the go. See this implementation for details.

If you can get the two maximum elements in O(n), where n is number of children then total complexity will be O(N), since we do this for all the nodes in tree.

//adjacency list
//adj[i] contains all neighbors of i
vector<int> adj[N];

//functions as defined above
int f[N],g[N],diameter;

//pV is parent of node V
void dfs(int V, int pV){
    //this vector will store f for all children of V
    vector<int> fValues;

    //traverse over all children
    for(auto v: adj[V]){
    if(v == pV) continue;
    dfs(v, V);
    fValues.push_back(f[v]);
    }

    //sort to get top two values
    //you can also get top two values without sorting(think about it) in O(n)
    //current complexity is n log n
    sort(fValues.begin(),fValues.end());

    //update f for current node
    f[V] = 1;
    if(not fValues.empty()) f[V] += fValues.back();

    if(fValues.size()>=2)
         g[V] = 2 + fValues.back() + fValues[fValues.size()-2];

    diameter = max(diameter, max(f[V], g[V]));
}

Now, we know the basics, lets move onto solving a little advanced problems.

Problem 3:

==============

Given a tree T of N nodes and an integer K, find number of different sub trees of size less than or equal to K.

First, what is a sub tree of a tree? Its a subset of nodes of original tree such that this subset is connected. Note a sub tree is different from our definition of subtree.

Always think by rooting the tree. So, say that tree is rooted at node 1. At this moment, I define S(V) as the subtree rooted at node V. This subtree definition is different from the one in problem. In S(V) all nodes in subtree of V are included.

Now, lets try to count total number of sub trees of a tree first. Then, we'll try to use same logic for solving original problem.
Lets define f(V) as number of sub trees of S(V) which include node V i.e. you choose V as root of the sub trees that we are forming. Now, in these subtrees, for each child u of node V, we have two options: whether to include them in sub tree or not. If you are including a node u, then there are f(u) ways, otherwise there is only one way(since we can't choose any nodes from S(u), otherwise the subtree we are forming will get disconnected).

So, if node V has children v₁, v₂, ..., v_n, then we can say that . Now, is our solution complete? f(1) counts number of sub trees of T which are rooted at 1. What about sub trees which are not rooted at 1? We need to define one more function g(V) as number of subtrees of S(V) which are not rooted at V. We derive a recursion for g(V) as i.e. for each child we add to g(V) number of ways to choose a subtree rooted at that child or not rooted at that child.

Our final answer is f(1) + g(1).

Now, onto our original problem. We are trying to count sub trees of T whose size doesn't exceed K. We need to have one more state in our DP at each node. Lets define f(V, k) as number of sub trees with k nodes and V as root. Now, we can define recurrence relation for this. Let's say for node V, there are direct children nodes v₁, v₂, ..., v_n. Now, to form a subtree with k + 1 nodes rooted at V, lets say S(v_i) contributes a_i nodes. Of course, k must be since we are forming a sub tree of size k + 1(one node is contributed by V). We should realise that f(V, k) is sum of the value for all possible distinct sequences a₁, a₂, ..., a_n.

Now, to do this computation at node V, we will form one more DP denoted by . We say as number of ways to choose a total of j nodes from subtrees defined by v₁, v₂, ..., v_i. The recurrence can be defined as , i.e. we are iterating over k assuming that subtree of v_i contributes k nodes.

So, finally .
And our final solution is sum for all nodes V.

So, in terms of pseudo code we write:

f[N][K+1]

void rec(int cur_node){

     f[cur_node][1]=1
     dp_buffer[K] = {0}
     dp_buffer[0] = 1

     for(all v such that v is children of cur_node)
      rec(v)

      dp_buffer1[K] = {0}           
      for i=0 to K:
           for j=0 to K-i:
                dp_buffer1[i + j] += dp_buffer[i]*f[v][j]

      dp_buffer = dp_buffer1

     f[cur_node] = dp_buffer
}

Now, lets analyse complexity. At each node with n children, we are doing a computation of n * K², so total complexity is O(N * K²).

Another similar problem is : We are given a tree with N nodes and a weight assigned to each node, along with a number K. The aim is to delete enough nodes from the tree so that the tree is left with precisely K leaves. The cost of such a deletion is the sum of the weights of the nodes deleted. What is the minimum cost to reduce to tree to a tree with K leaves? Now, think about the states of our DP. Derive a recurrence. Before actually proceeding to the solution give it atleast a good thinking. Find solution here.

Problem 4:

==============

Given a tree T, where each node i has cost C_i. Steve starts at root node, and navigates to one node that he hasn't visited yet at random. Steve will stop once there are no unvisited nodes. Such a path takes total time equal to sum of costs of all nodes visited. What node should be assigned as root such that expected total time is minimised?

First, lets say tree is rooted at node 1, then we calculate total expected time for the tree formed. We define f(V) as expected total time if we start at node V and visit in subtree of V. If V has children v₁, v₂, ..., v_n, we can say that , since with same probability we'll move down each of the children.

Now, we have to find a node v such that if we root tree at v, then f(v) is minimised. Now, f(v) is dependent on where we root the tree. If we do a brute force, it'll be O(N²). We need faster than this to pass.

We'll try to iterate over all nodes V and quickly calculate the value of f(V) if tree is rooted at V. We need to see the contribution of if tree is rooted at V. We already know the contribution of children of V. So, if we define one more quantity g(V) as the expected total time at node , if we don't consider contribution of subtree of V.

Now, if I want to root my whole tree at V, then total expected time at this node will be . To realise this is correct, have a look at definition of g(V).

Lets see how we can calculate g(V). Keep referring to image below this paragraph while reading. Consider a node p which has parent p' and children v₁, v₂, ..., v_n. Now, lets try to find g(v_i). g(v_i) means root tree at node p and don't consider subtree of v_i for calculating f(p). We can say that , since g(p) gives us the expected total time at p' without considering subtree of p. We divide by n, because p will have n children i.e. p', v₁, ..., v_i - 1, v_i + 1, ..., v_n.

We can calculate both functions f and g recursively in O(N).

Problem 5:

==============

Another very interesting problem goes as: Given two rooted trees T₁ and T₂, you want to make T₁ as structurally similar to T₂. For doing that you can insert leaves one by one in any of the trees. You have to tell the minimum number of insertions required to do so.

Lets say both trees are rooted at nodes 1. Now, say T1₁ has children u₁, u₂, ..., u_n and T2₁ has children v₁, v₂, ..., v_m, then we are going to create a mapping between nodes in set u and v i.e. we are going to make subtree of some node u_i exactly same as v_j, for some i, j, by adding required nodes. If n ≠ m, then we are going to add the whole subtree required.

Now, how do we decide which node in T1 is mapped to which in T2. Again, we use DP here. We define as minimum additions required to make subtree of node i in T1 similar to subtree of node j in T2. We need to come up with a recurrence.

Lets say node i has children u₁, u₂, ..., u_n and node j has children v₁, v₂, ..., v_m. Now, if we assign node u_i with node v_j, then the cost is going to be . Now, to all nodes in u, we have to assign nodes from v such that total cost is minimised. This can be solved by solving assignment problem. In assignment problem there is a cost matrix C, where C(i, j) denotes cost if task i is assigned to person j. Our aim is to assign one task to one person such that total cost is minimised. This can be done in O(N³), if there are N tasks. Here in our problem and by solving this assignment problem, we can get value of .

Total complexity of this solution is O(N³), where N is maximum number of nodes in T₁ and T₂.

That's the end of it. Now time for some person advice :) The more you practice DP/DP on trees, the more comfortable you are going to be. So, get on your practice shoes and run over the obstacles! There are lot of DP on trees problem which you can try to solve and if you don't get the solution look at the tutorial/editorial, if you still don't get solution ask on various platforms.

Problems for practice:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Solution for 7) 8 9 10 11 12 13

A undirected complete bipartite graph G = (U, V, E) exists where |U| = |V|. For all vertices u and v, the weight of the edge between u and v is W_u, v(assume positive).

We have to do perfect matching such that Bitwise OR of weights of edges in matching is maximised.

I was trying to think of a polynomial time solution, but couldn't succeed.

Hello CodeForces Community!

I felt Centroid Decomposition as a very interesting and powerful technique when I first come along it. My friend, Baba has written a well designed and insightful blog on it. Also, I am including some other resources that can be very well found on CF only.

Links:

1. https://threads-iiith.quora.com/Centroid-Decomposition-of-a-Tree
2. http://codeforces.net/blog/entry/10533
3. http://ipsc.ksp.sk/2009/real/solutions/l.html
4. http://codeforces.net/blog/entry/12982
5. http://petr-mitrichev.blogspot.com/2015/03/this-week-in-competitive-programming_22.html

Hello Codeforces community!

I am glad to announce that HackerRank 101 Hack 26th edition will be held on 23rd June 2015 at 16:30 UTC. You can sign up for the contest here.
The problem statements will be available in English and Chinese. Though what's priceless is solving interesting problems and the thrill of competition, prizes make the competition fierce. Top 10 performers will get a HackerRank T-shirt.

Problems have been set by me(darkshadows) and tested by wanbo. The contest will consist of 5 problems with variable scoring distribution. I have tried my best to set a balanced problem set. Hopefully everyone will enjoy. Also, you'll be able to enjoy the detailed editorials written by the setter.

Good luck and have fun!

UPDATE1 Scoring is 30 — 40 — 50 — 100 — 120.
Cumulative time taken to solve the challenge is used as a tie-breaker.

UPDATE2 Editorials for all problems have been enabled.

This valentine's day, do what you most love, yes, a programming contest.

HackerEarth is running a short 2 hour contest on 14th February. There will be 5 algorithmic problems of varying difficulty level. This contest is open for all.

Setter: darkshadows
Tester: akashdeep
Editorialist: phantom11

Prizes: Top 3 winners to get HackerEarth T-shirts!

Contest link: https://www.hackerearth.com/february-love-15/

Also don't forget to RSVP at the Facebook event page: https://www.facebook.com/events/1062066703820190/

Happy Coding!